What Kinds Of Speech Sounds Do We Make In English? Understanding Consonants
Author: Jesse Nerenberg, Reg. CASLPO, Speech-Language Pathologist
Date: Wednesday, October 23, 2024
As speech-language pathologists (SLPs) at Well Said, we often work with individuals who are curious about how speech sounds are produced and how we can refine them to communicate more clearly. One of the most fundamental parts of speech is consonants. Consonants are everywhere in English – they help shape words, give structure to our sentences, and make our speech intelligible. Understanding consonants is essential to improving speech clarity, especially if you're working on specific speech goals in therapy. In this blog post, I’ll explain the different types of consonants we produce in English and why knowing about them can help you, whether you’re an adult refining articulation errors, working on an accent or just trying to speak more clearly.
Consonants are speech sounds produced when the flow of air through the vocal tract is obstructed in some way. This obstruction can occur at different points in the mouth and throat and can be complete or partial. For example, when you say the sound /p/ (as in "pat"), your lips come together, stopping the airflow completely for a moment, building up pressure, then releasing it in a burst. In contrast, when you say /s/ (as in "sit"), the airflow is constricted but continues to flow. It is the friction of the airflow that creates the sound (as opposed to the burst in the /p/ sound).
It is important to note that when an SLP speaks about consonants, they are not exactly referring to “the consonants” you may have learned about in school (as in all the letters which are not vowels). By consonants, we are actually referring to the speech sounds we make, which are represented by the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). This is especially true in a language like English where there is not a 1 to 1 sound to letter correspondence. For example, one of the consonants, the “SH” sound, which is the first sound in the word “shut” (represented in the IPA by the symbol /ʃ/) is a single consonant. However, it is often represented orthographically by two letters (S and H).
In English, consonants can be classified based on three main characteristics:
Place of articulation: Where in the vocal tract the sound is produced.
Manner of articulation: How the airflow is modified as the sound is produced.
Voicing: Whether the vocal cords vibrate during the production of the sound.
Let’s break these down further to understand how each works and to explore the types of consonants we make in English. With many of my clients, I will pull up a sagittal view of the articulators to help explain how this all works.
1. Place of Articulation: Where Does the Sound Happen?
The "place of articulation" refers to the location in your vocal tract where the airflow is obstructed. Here are the main places of articulation for English consonants:
Bilabial: Sounds produced with both lips coming together. Examples: /p/ (as in "pat"), /b/ (as in "bat"), /m/ (as in "mat").
Labiodental: Sounds produced with the lower lip and the upper teeth. Examples: /f/ (as in "fat"), /v/ (as in "vat").
Interdental: Sounds produced with the tongue between the teeth. Examples: /θ/ (as in "think"), /ð/ (as in "this").
Alveolar: Sounds produced with the tongue against the alveolar ridge (the bumpy ridge behind the upper front teeth). Examples: /t/ (as in "tap"), /d/ (as in "dog"), /n/ (as in "nap"), /s/ (as in "sit"), /z/ (as in "zip"), /l/ (as in "lip").
Palatal: Sounds produced with the tongue against the hard palate (the roof of the mouth). Examples: /ʃ/ (as in "shut"), /ʒ/ (as in the middle sound in "measure"), /tʃ/ (as in "chop"), /dʒ/ (as in "judge"), and /j/ (as in "yes").
Velar: Sounds produced with the tongue against the soft part of the roof of the mouth (the velum). Examples: /k/ (as in "cat"), /g/ (as in "go"), /ŋ/ (as in "sing").
Glottal: Sounds produced at the glottis (the space between the vocal cords). The glottal stop /ʔ/ (as in the break in the word "uh-oh") and the /h/ sound (as in "hat") are examples of glottal sounds.
Each of these places of articulation creates a unique sound by positioning different parts of the mouth and throat in specific ways.
2. Manner of Articulation: How Does the Sound Happen?
The manner of articulation describes how the airflow is modified. Consonants can be produced by completely stopping the airflow, allowing it to flow freely but with some friction, or even by diverting the airflow through the nose. Here’s how consonants are classified based on the manner of articulation:
Plosives (Stops): These are produced by completely blocking the airflow and then releasing it on a burst. Examples: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/. You could also refer to these as “popping” sounds because they have that pop quality. As you may have noticed, these sounds can only be produced in an instant (like a gunshot). You cannot make a longer /p/ to begin the word “pot” for example.
Fricatives: These sounds are produced by forcing the airflow through a narrow constriction, causing friction. It is the friction that creates the sound. Examples: /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /h/. If you notice, as compared to the plosives, fricatives can be stretched out for as long as you have a reserve of breath remaining, since the airflow creates the sound.
Affricates: These are a combination of a stop and a fricative. The sound begins with a complete stop and then is released into a fricative. Examples: /tʃ/, /dʒ/ (as in "chop" and "judge"). With clients who may not be familiar with this sound, I often will tell them to add a “T” before an “SH” to achieve th sound /tʃ/.
Nasals: Nasal sounds occur when the airflow is directed through the nose because the oral passage is blocked. Examples: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/ (this final sound is the nasal sound that ends most present participle verbs and is often represented by the letters “ng” such as the ending sound of “running”).
Liquids: These sounds are made with some obstruction of the airflow but not enough to create friction. Examples: /l/ and /ɹ/.
Glides: These are sounds where the articulators move closer together, but the airflow is not blocked or constricted much. Examples: /w/, /j/ (as in the first sound in "yes"). These are also called glides because the articulators (mainly the tongue or lips) will move (or glide) from one position to another to create the sound. These are also sometimes called “semivowels” because the sounds are inherently more vowel-like that other consonants.
Each of these manners of articulation creates distinct sounds that are essential for building the variety of speech sounds in English.
3. Voicing: Is the Sound Voiced or Voiceless?
Consonants can also be categorized based on voicing, which refers to whether or not your vocal cords vibrate when producing the sound. Place your fingers on your throat and try this: say /z/ (as in "zoo") and then /s/ (as in "see"). Or make a sustained /s/ (like a snake) and switch back and forth between that and a /z/ sound (like a buzzing bee). You’ll feel your vocal cords vibrate when you say /z/, but not when you say /s/. This is the difference between voiced and voiceless sounds.
Voiced consonants: Your vocal cords vibrate. Examples: /b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /z/, /ʒ/, /dʒ/, /m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /l/, /r/, /w/, /j/, /ð/.
Voiceless consonants: Your vocal cords do not vibrate. Examples: /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, /θ/, /s/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /h/.
Understanding whether a sound is voiced or voiceless is essential in speech therapy because certain speech challenges involve confusion between these two types of sounds. For example, a client might say /p/ instead of /b/, or /t/ instead of /d/, which are all pairs of voiceless and voiced sounds. I have worked with some clients who were having difficulty producing voiced consonants at the ends of certain words, which is often how we produce the past tense of verbs in English (for example the final /d/ sound in the word “played”). Helping the clients learn about voicing is an important step to correcting such errors.
Knowing about the different types of consonants and how they are produced is key to understanding speech challenges and setting goals for improvement. For example:
Articulation Disorders: Sometimes, even adults have trouble producing specific consonants correctly, making their speech difficult to understand. This could involve mispronouncing a sound or substituting one sound for another. In therapy, we might work on practicing those sounds in isolation, then gradually work them into words, sentences, and conversation.
Phonological Disorders: In this case, the issue is not with the ability to produce a specific sound but with using the sound correctly within the language system. A client might leave off final consonants (saying "ca" instead of "cat") or consistently substitute one sound for another (like using /t/ for /k/, saying "tat" instead of "cat"). I recently worked with a client who had difficulty with a specific speech sound, but only when it was at the ends of words. Understanding where and how these sounds are produced helps guide therapy.
Accent Modification: For adults learning English as a second language, working on the fine details of consonant production can help modify an accent and increase clarity. This might involve learning new sounds that don’t exist in their first language or refining the way they produce English consonants.
Motor Speech Disorders: Conditions like apraxia or dysarthria affect how the brain plans and executes the movements needed for speech. Breaking down the production of each consonant and focusing on motor learning principles can be crucial for improving intelligibility in these cases.
Speaking with More Clarity: Learning about speech sounds can help clients realize that speaking is a form of movement, a motor activity, which can change how they approach and practice their speech.
If you’re working on your speech sounds, remember that improvement takes time and practice. The more you understand how sounds are made, the easier it will be to notice the difference between correct and incorrect production. For example, paying attention to whether your vocal cords are vibrating (voiced vs. voiceless) or where your tongue is placed (alveolar vs. velar) can help you fine-tune your articulation.
In speech therapy, we use a variety of tools, from minimal pairs (words that differ by only one sound, like "bat" vs. "pat") to detailed articulation practice in sentences and conversation. With consistent effort, you’ll notice progress over time.
Understanding the basics of how consonants are produced in English can be empowering. Knowing about the places and manners of articulation and the distinction between voiced and voiceless sounds can make a big difference. Speech therapy is all about building awareness, practicing consistently, and celebrating small victories along the way. Keep practicing, and remember that progress is often within reach!
To speak with a psychotherapist or one of the speech-language pathologists at Well Said: Toronto Speech Therapy, schedule an initial consultation by clicking the link below or calling (647) 795-5277.